Comparative Cases on Social Capital in Indonesia

 

Introduction 

Discussing social capital in Indonesia is interesting. Many areas using social capital show various degrees and condition. The ups and downs of social capital in Indonesia are influenced by several factors, including the quality of the social capital mechanism and the state role in the social capital activities. To some extent, it can decide the improvement of social capital further. However, in some cases, social capital still exists whether there is state role or not within.

In developing countries, particularly in the rural areas, the form is informal rather than formal associations that have most value for citizens (Krishna, 2002: 5). Civic community understanding from Putnam may be manifested in developing countries as two, urban and rural community. For urban area, some civic communities are rather similar with clubs or modern associations, however the basic traditional form of social capital is not loosen and still exist numerously. In rural area, there are no social clubs or communities based on western styles and by some means, traditional and informal associations, especially those which based on religions and customs, are established diversely.

Fukuyama (1999) mentioned that religion is one source of social capital ties the people strongly. Although religion is not the base of country, in Indonesia religion plays an important role in daily life. Especially in the local area, people do many activities related on the religion base. 

Choosing cases of social capital in Indonesia is not easy because of its diversity. Here, comparative analysis will be used as the tool to analyze cases of successful and unsuccessful social capital.

Hypothesis for Indonesia

• Social capital is important
• Bridging, monitoring, independence aspects are matter to determine the strength of social capital.

Cases

In Indonesia, there are some types of social capital associations such as religion-based, customs based or non-religions and/or customs based organizations. Some examples of social capital in Indonesia are :

-         Gotong royong system

-         Subak

-         Arisan and

-         Pengajian

Recently, social conflict and natural disaster occurred in several places. To some extent, they influenced the development of social capital in the certain areas. They are included :

-         Ethnic conflict in Poso, Sulawesi island

-         Religion conflict in Maluku province

-         Tsunami disaster in Aceh

 

Lasting	Decreasing	Awakening
-    National scope : gotong royong, arisan, pengajian-    Bali Province : subak system	- Poso and Maluku in the conflict time.	-       Aceh-       Maluku and Poso in the reconciliation

Ø      Lasting Group

Gotong royong, arisan and pengajian, have shifted from the internal community groups into larger scale of scopes and membership. Gotong royong mechanism is nationally known and become the pillar for mass motivation and activities. Through this system, people do every activity, especially for public purposes, together. Participation and networking in a project will be more meaningful if conducted by members involving other groups.

In arisan (rotating credit association), a non-religion and non-ethnic based association, the function is to spread the benefit among other is strong here. The head of association organizes the activities run well. By giving some certain amount of money regularly, all members are equal to have the same chance to receive all money collected from all of the members.

The source of pengajian is religion, which is the base of the members’ community activities whether the activity is related with religion or not.  Many cases show that it is not just merely a religious group gathers routinely, but moves to be social group that can do social activities. Usually here ‘leader’ play an important role but if we use the term in the Tupelo case (Putnam and Feldstein, 2002) where there is not a really leader there, but someone who can open the social capital chain to come up, then it maybe similar in the case of  pengajian. Sometimes, the actors who play an important part are not the leaders, although in some other groups they are elected to be leaders as well. There can be more than one actor who persuade people to think and act for their improvement and they do not have to be leader.

Subak is a traditional irrigation system in Bali based on local custom, has been successful sustained across the religion and ethnic borders. The development then involves other villagers who are not Balinese and non Hindu people and applies participation among all stakeholders, along with monitoring mechanism followed by social sanction based on custom norms or rules.

 

Ø      Decreasing Type

In Poso and Maluku, associations and communities before conflicts are rather based on customs or ethnic and religion base. These two areas faced a decreasing social capital sharply while conflicts occurred. Poso experienced ethnic social conflict between Dayak ethnic people as natives and Madurese as the comer. In the case of Maluku, the religions conflict between Islam and Christian happenned badly.

For both cases, before the conflict, there was a good condition, including in social and trade relationship, but still low in social cohesion. However, like in any other cases where new comers are more struggle and experienced, they can reach more succeed achievement rather than the natives, it caused social jealousy in the natives, and was worst as elites played political strategy by placing leader from minority, and brought up sensitive issues such as ethnic and religion. Unavoidably, the conflict spread widely.

There are two main questions raised; why the social capital developed before the conflicts could be ruined and why the previous social capital could not prevent the conflicts happened?  These questions will be answer in the next part.

 

 

Analysis : what make differences

 

These cases, including the decreasing ones, are happening continuously for long time. The members have maintained these activities and some provide kind of social sanction within to uphold services quality. In the lasting social capital, where some has been national-widely known, there is awareness among people to maintain this social capital and enhance cross-cutting networks as well.

Some initial points in discussing this substance are; first, bonding and bridging. Narayan (1999) explains that there may be high social capital within a group (“bonding” social capital) which helps member, but they may be excluded from other groups (they lack “bridging” social capital). This is negative effect of bonding social capital and happened in Poso and Maluku.

To answer questions in the second part, in the decreasing cases, what thing can be taken is that before the conflict, the social capital circumstance was good but not strong enough in facing the intrusion. Bonding was enough only for surviving, but strong bonding social capital (dominated by kin-based or ethnic links) will lead to low levels of social cohesion (Grootaert et al, 2002: 13). Besides the difficulties to open the chance for improvement, in addition strong bonding potentially leads to conflict. Each group fights or competes for the same goal, for example political power or economic center acquirement. Obviously, there is no self-interest well understood. In sum, the social capital was vulnerable; strong inside but difficult to get ahead.

Second is monitoring aspects. In subak system and gotong royong, arisan and pengajian, there is and active communication and monitoring mechanism likely to be in place. It does not mean that ethnic or custom-based social capital neglect it, but in the case of Poso and Maluku – where monitoring mechanism were present too-  it was truly inside their groups. Subak system and gotong royong, arisan and pengajian have a wider range of member, makes the monitoring mechanism is fruitful when it is applied well. In subak system, the base for this mechanism is custom, but then the scope of mechanism covers a wider range not only Balinese native and Hindu people. A wider loyalty and trust constructs individuals acknowledge their relation with other people and do not think merely about themselves. In the contrary, in Poso and Maluku before conflict the bonding was totally focused inside the association, without self-interest well understood and intention to create bridging.

Lastly, there is too deep outsider or state interference. In the Poso and Maluku, strong bonding in communities and association were intervened by state and elites. State used the communities to apply their policies and elites used it to apply their interest. This condition is different with the social capital types in subak system and gotong royong-arisan-pengajian which are independent and act freely to fulfill their needs or accomplish activities.

State role is good as long as it can open or help the organization or association to do cross-cutting networks. Hence, they will have benefit to cover their lack of resources. On the other hand, community cannot be too strong either toward state, because in this condition, the possibility is community will dominate state.

Possible Collective Actions Mechanisms and Mediating Agency

In the awakening of social capital, what things will make difference with previous social capital?

For cases Aceh, Poso and Maluku, some mediating agencies, ranged from local people or actors to NGO, participate with the social capital building. Krishna singled out any effective collective action requires agents who recognize and can help others take advantage of the opportunities that exist in the environment (Krishna, 2002:13). If we take the understanding from Putnam that social capital can be reproduced, then this is the process to rebuild, although social capital cannot be so easily created or shaped by public policy either (Fukuyama, 1999). Though the role of mediating agency does not release the spontaneous character as well for they can only be the agency to encourage social capital forming and the most important is citizen must do the engagement by themselves. This is to emphasize that mediating agency does not guarantee social capital will be succeed performed.

The tool or mechanism for transmission can be various. Education is important. In Maluku, they recover school first. They realize education is a substantial part to transmit information. Secondly, dissimilar with developed countries, in developing countries high level of newspaper tradition can be found in the urban area, it is rarely operated in rural. As the complement, the mechanism information exchange and communication in rural area is conducted through religion or villager meeting, and any informal mechanism. These are quite effective in performing information exchange and direct communication.

Conclusion 

In general, we can say that social capital in Indonesia, in various forms and sources, still exists diversely and important. If we measure those kinds of social capital in Indonesia by the norms, networks and social trust, then we can find them within the cases.

There is consciousness among people to generate and maintain social capital again because of the benefits gain from it. This consciousness is important because to start and maintain social capital, since the awareness is the basic.

In sum, reasons of low social capital or its barriers in Indonesia are first, too strong bonding without bridging causes negative impact of social capital. Second, there is too deep interference by state or elites make the association is not independent to act and potential to be used for political reasons.

Education and direct communication are still reliable in Indonesia as the tool to transmit information and social capital ideas. Mediating agency is helpful although is not guaranteeing to perform a success social capital, other than people with awareness to construct social capital exist.

 *** 

References 

Fukuyama, Francis, 1999, Social Capital and Civil Society in http://www.imf.org

Krishna, Anirudh, 2002, Active Social Capital : Tracing the Roots of Development and Democracy, New York, Columbia University Press

Narayan, Deepa, 1999, Bonds and Bridges Social Capital and Poverty, The World Bank Poverty Reduction and Economic Management Network, August.

Putnam, Robert D. and Lewis M. Feldstein with Don Cohen, 2002, Better Together Restoring the American Community¸Simon & Schuster Paperbacks, New York